A Philosophy of a Social Studies Education free essay sample

In consideration of every field in education I believe that there is none more impactful than that of a social studies class at an adolescent level. Whereas other disciplines can also challenge students to think critically and in new, creative ways, a social studies course has the unique opportunity to teach content in a way fundamentally essential to the progression of society. If the next generation is to uphold equality as the standard for human rights and democracy as its respective form of government, then it is positively critical that it learns to do so not through top-down citizenship transmission, but through a less guided and open-minded approach in reflective inquiry. I see a clear connection between reflective inquiry and historical thinking; both require approaching new knowledge with an open mind, the ability to create an individual or cooperative understanding, and when in a democracy to share this newly acquired knowledge to further stimulate the minds of others. We will write a custom essay sample on A Philosophy of a Social Studies Education or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page It is precisely through a social studies education that, given engaging instruction, high expectations for all, and everyday reflection, students will learn how to build upon their knowledge in their own ways. This love for learning can last a lifetime, but what is truly exceptional is how forever long an open sharing of knowledge can circulate in a free society. The defining light bulb moment of my life came to me during my junior year of high school in my American history class. My entire school life leading up to that course I was the kid who spent more time acting out as a class clown than ever studying for tests. I always found history to be interesting, but in reflection it seems as though I subconsciously blocked out of my mind the notion that it was possible to for me to actually enjoy school. I believe this gives me a unique perspective as I enter the teaching profession, since I know exactly what is going through the minds of disengaged students and how they can overcome this learning block. For me it was the watershed year in my life that my American history teacher, Mr. Doyle, challenged my longstanding belief that I was â€Å"too cool for school. † The truth was, just as every student does at heart, I loved learning. Mr. Doyle was not a perfect teacher but he executed a near-perfect instruction to my learning style. His lectures were at a speeding pace and always kept me on the edge of my seat during class. Although he rarely varied up his lesson plans, his everyday energy and passion reverberated with me and kept my interest higher than it ever was in school before. He held us all to high standards, and questioned how we traditionally looked at history. Mr. Doyle was able to prove to me that the acquisition of knowledge, and historical thought and skills specifically, was something truly worthwhile to any human being. First and foremost I find it valuable to define knowledge as grounded belief (Hunt amp; Metcalf, 1968). Should a social studies teacher simply relay â€Å"facts† assumed to be for certain without student inquiry, that teacher would be doing an injustice to the class. The teacher is not an all-knowing source, and should be judged for credibility just like any other source. It is also of greater use to have students take control in their learning, for when knowledge is generated by students instead of being handed to them by their teacher it can hold a greater meaning by opening up new pathways for analytical thinking. It is absolutely worthless to have students memorize that Christopher Columbus sailed to Haiti in 1492, but it is all the more powerful to have each student create an argument of their own for how Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain came to unite a country and build an intercontinental empire. Social studies classrooms can even take learning a step further by using historical themes as a lens for the present. â€Å"Equity pedagogy creates an environment in which students can acquire, interrogate, and produce knowledge and envision new possibilities for use of that knowledge for social change,† (Banks amp; Banks, 1995, p. 53). The simple notion that young adolescents can work together to galvanize a community around a present issue is empowering, and I believe communal participation is too often discarded in high school classrooms. Teenagers can make an impact, even just by initiating democratic discussions with their peers at the lunch table. Educators ought to promote active citi zenship at the national and global level. We live in a country fortunate enough to permit protest and opposing opinions, and so students should be encouraged to voice their controversial beliefs (so long as they are grounded in facts). Because every person is not just a citizen of a particular country but also of the world each of us has an obligation to participate in global affairs. Social studies classrooms historically have often taught American centrism, and the â€Å"City on the Hill† mentality that our nation was founded on and still holds firmly in the minds of many Americans today. I believe that the reputations and expectations of superpowers in global politics should be taught to understand history but not to boast national egos. To put it bluntly, there are far too many immoral and unjust actions taken by our country to be reason to pride oneself of global power. Citizens of all countries should instead keep a steady interest in world news and issues for the sake of extending human rights for all, environmentalism, the maintenance of peace, or whichever other issue they find of merit to themselves and to the world. A key part in promoting active citizenship is encouraging students to develop their sense of values and morals. It is not to say that values and morals direct themselves solely from religion; this may be the case for some however in public education I believe it is the educators’ civic responsibility to uphold a clear separation of church and state. Social studies is used to guide students into defining what morality means to them through open-minded learning and civic participation. The conflict then becomes for history teachers how to teach certain dominantly favored values in an unbiased way. One unit in an American history class might be the civil rights movement, from 1954-1965. The teacher may feel mandated to teach the value of equality as an underlying theme in the progression of civil rights, however such a value becomes controversial when discussing current issues of equality such as gay marriage. I believe that a social studies teacher can teach equality as an impartial guide, and the students can then develop their own beliefs of equality for themselves. Whether they believe gay marriage should be legalized in every state or African-Americans never deserved the right to integrate into white schools, they are learning their values through an impartial look at history and are grounding their beliefs in learned facts. Since discovering my passion for education and for history I have decided upon the exact form of instruction that suits me best as a student. However, much to my earlier dismay, not all students learn in the same manner as I do. I now believe that educators must make an effort to accommodate all learners, for their preferences of instruction as well as their levels of intellectual capability. Every teacher has an obligation to keep every student to high expectations, since setting the bar high is the only way I know to get students to reach for it. I wish for my classes to be more content-driven than the social studies standards may dictate them to be. I see no reason to dilute my own standards for students to study history as a memorization of â€Å"facts† they can find within their textbook. I believe that by teaching a more thorough history students will not only remember the â€Å"facts† that they need to remember on state testing days but they will also learn to see history in a much broader light. I find a passionate and knowledgeable teacher’s lectures to be far more intellectually stimulating than any simply designed, cooperative lesson plan. With that said, I wish for my lessons to be primarily lecture and discussion based as opposed to any textbook suggested lesson plans. I am confident that as I grow more experienced in teaching I will pick up on some my own ideas and those of my colleagues to vary up my instruction, but for my first few years I plan to stick to what I know I can teach well. There will without a doubt still be opportunities to open the class up for historical debates, storytelling, research projects, and the occasional cooperative exercise (when appropriate). My core belief with instruction is to consistently push students to reach for their unreachable potential, and my concern, which is derived from my own experiences as a student, is that certain group work becomes more recreational than educational for students who do not feel challenged or are more passive with their learning. In theory I find reflective inquiry to be the form of instruction best suited to accommodate every student’s style of learning, however I also believe that teaching history as a social science can compliment the goals of a reflective classroom. I agree with the approach of student-centered learning in reflective inquiry (Dewey, 1933). â€Å"We too often ignore or make little effort to learn about the personal experiences of the student-citizens we meet in our classes,† and so the diversity of students’ own backgrounds should be used to strengthen discussion and to assist constructing their new interpretations of knowledge (Ochoa-Becker, 2007, p. 169). They will subject any ungrounded prejudices they may have to a rational examination and develop new beliefs (Hunt amp; Metcalf, 1968). Students will draw their own fact-supported conclusions within the curriculum and use their new understandings of history to provoke the minds of others in democratic discussions. To teach social science in a reflective classroom means to bring about opportunities for students to think analytically about history. Students explore content beyond the textbook and through primary and secondary sources, just as historians would. They critique all new information with a sense of doubt as they learn to judge sources for their authenticity, bias, and merit (Barton, 2005). By creating their own interpretations of history students are at times learning only independently, however in a reflective classroom they are also sharing their newfound knowledge and supported arguments with their classmates. In research assignments their theses are of scholarly topics but are also chosen by the students according to their own interest. Their work can be assigned to correlate with modern issues to further encourage civic participation. Not all students will find a passion in historical research but by integrating social science into the reflective classroom they are learning how to think with an open mind and how to create an argument. One great caution social studies teachers have is to stray away from making direct historical analogies. Too often teachers try to motivate students into seeing the value in history by using the infamous and anonymous quote, â€Å"Those who do not remember history are condemned to repeat it. However this is an incorrect assessment of history; to assume that any one historical event is a repeat of another is to assume that their circumstances are exactly the same. The tragic simplicity of this has been put to use in international politics as well, as many historians agree that America’s Cold War containment policy was no more than a flawed and failed attempt to prevent the same appeasement to Soviet leaders as was done to Adolf Hitler in Munich, 1938. Social studies teachers can teach how historical analogies controlled the minds of politicians, but to say that there are direct connections between isolated events and even to the present would only create close-minded learners. Students need to see history as a means to understand the present through themes that have shaped our past. In a reflective classroom they must be taught the critical thinking skills to assess for themselves how events may or may not be interconnected and to develop their own themes for understanding history. When social studies is taught beyond the facts it must be tested accordingly. Teachers can gauge students’ progress in the course by a variety of evaluations, not just by exams. Assessment ought to â€Å"†¦ deal with the degree to which issues have been understood, the ability to generate useful interpretations as well as mastery of the intellectual processes, that is verifying truth claims and decision making needed in the resolution of significant and controversial issues,† (Ochoa-Becker, 2007, p. 105). Therefore the best methods of assessment do not reside in multiple-choice questions asking for answers dictated as facts by the teacher. They reside in the extent of students’ demonstration of analytical thought, whether in classroom activities such as developing arguments for a group debate or in essays prompting students to connect themes to create their own understanding of a historical event. Participation should also be a factor, as active citizenship is a primary goal of a social studies education. This can carry as much weight as a teacher chooses it to, it is only important to announce that participation in society begins in the classroom. While I know at times my overconfidence can overshadow my otherwise open mind, I hold a deep appreciation for learning. Quite simply, I see it as an obligation not only to one’s self but also to society that one actively engages their mind to leave the world a better place than when they found it. In my classroom students will utilize critical thinking skills not just to study history but also for practical use within their own lives. Once applied to their lives it makes no difference to me as a teacher whether or not my students continue on in history. For this means that they have undertaken a lifelong love for learning, which is the ultimate goal of education as well as my personal guarantee for a richer, fuller life. If one chooses not to participate in reflective thought, then he/she is embracing passivity, â€Å"†¦ the opposite of thought; that it is not only a sign of failure to call out judgment and personal understanding, but that it also dulls curiosity, generates mind-wandering, and causes learning to be a task instead of a delight,† (Dewey, 1933, p. 261). In my mind of justice, passivity is the greatest crime one can commit against a society. The progression of civilization, and especially that of a democracy, is forever dependent on the availability of new ideas and contradicting thought. As much as opposing beliefs may frustrate others and complicate work, we must strive to protect freedom of speech and embrace compromises that are representative of all viewpoints. As I am completing my final years in education school, I feel honored that I will soon have the privilege to teach social studies to our nation’s youth. I will be teaching the content that I find not only the most interesting but also the most relevant to my students’ lives and our world’s future. The educational philosophies I studied have shaped how I view my career, however my core belief remains the same: Given an engaging teacher, captivating content, and high expectations, any student will come to enjoy their education. After learning how to learn with an open mind and how to stand for an argument, one can successfully participate in society. It is imperative that one does so, as our democracy is entirely reliant on each next generation’s stock of problem solvers. Although as a student myself I have a difficult time yielding any of my own work and responsibilities to others, I acknowledge that cooperation is a fundamental asset to be valued in our society. It is the very concept that I am most enthusiastic about teaching to my students, and it is the very practice that I am most enthusiastic about learning from my students. I may never be a perfect social studies teacher, but I am confident beyond measure that I will never cease to improve. It is my obligation in life that I continue to strive for my own unreachable potential each school year, and I am truly thankful for the opportunity to do so.

Business Environment The WritePass Journal

Business Environment Introduction Business Environment ). This clearly shows increased demand for reservations. Another example of the specificity of demand could refer to a time when a famous artist dies, implying he would not be producing more artworks. This reflects in increased demand for his art. An example of the law of supply in business relates to a situation in which many immigrant workers arrive to a city and demonstrate extensive willingness to be considered for employment at low wages. Yet the number of such workers is greater than the number of available jobs, resulting in the excess supply of workers and thus driving wages down (Burrows III 2012). Moreover, one may consider that wheat crops are widely available throughout the year, implying there is an excessive quantity of wheat than consumers would usually purchase (Prasch 2008). In an attempt to overcome the challenge associated with the excess supply, farmers would be forced to decrease the price of wheat, indicating that the price is reduced for everyone. Such examples show that the forces of demand and supply are fundamental in determining the pricing decisions and sales of organisations, including the respective pricing structure of VAA. An increase in air passenger tax apparently results in high prices of air travel set by VAA. Such pricing factor indicates a negative trend in terms of discouraging passengers to use air travel services (Moon 2013). In addition, specific policies affecting fuel supply and price demonstrate a negative impact on the airline’s sustainability. Supply decisions by oil suppliers represent certain patterns that eventually lead to the rise of fuel prices (Burrow III 2012). As a result, the adoption of a relevant risk management strategy is a priority to the airline. It has been demonstrated that the risk is segregated in different sections in order to ensure that the potential occurrence of a failure would not bring the entire group down. This is done with the idea to control the effect of the fuel p rice risk as well as the company’s pricing decisions and sales. PEST Analysis and Impact on the Behaviour of VAA   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   VAA is a strong, distinct brand mostly because of corporate image and its reputation for providing adequate corporate service and persistent innovations in the airline industry. Examples of such innovations relate to first entertainment system and first in-flight beauty treatment to its passengers. As part of conducting a PEST analysis of VAA, it is important to consider the role of the environment prior to initiating marketing operations (Salai and Znidersic 2011). The political environmental aspect is associated with governmental intervention, services merit, interest rate and taxation policy. In an attempt to consider the political-legal environment in which VAA operates, individuals may refer to the opening of Heathrow Airport to the company in 1991. The basic idea was to ensure a balanced approach to managing air traffic between Heathrow Airport and Gatwick Airport. Moreover, economic issues are important for the behaviour of the airl ine. Such issues indicate a relevant concern with deregulation. The constant evolution of the industry has an essential role on determining and maintaining stability of low air prices (Macsai 2009). From an economical perspective, VAA is mainly concerned with increasing fuel cost and environmental restrictions such as insurance cost and higher security. VAA has always considered the trading economy in its short-term and long-term dimensions. The third aspect of the PEST tool is the socio-cultural dimension. The airline has extensively considered the importance of differing attitudes of customers located in different regions. In this way, VAA is oriented towards ensuring a flexible socio-cultural approach in an attempt to understand the practical implications of such influence (Salai and Znidersic 2011). Therefore, the company always tends to recruit quality staff regardless of low income as a result of the recent UK recession. VAA’s employees are focused on providing passengers an ultimate entertaining experience in the air by complying with their needs and preferences (Soares et al. 2007). Considering cultural diversity in its entirety is a main socio-cultural priority of VAA. In its behaviour, the airline has asserted its appreciation of technology as it persistently helps the company meets the expectations of its passengers. The implementation of high technologies is among the top priorities of the organisation. Innovations are integral part of the company’s aim to provide a comfortable and relaxing experience to customers (Salai and Znidersic 2011). Innovative practices based on the entertainment aspect show that the airline goes beyond the expectations of passengers. Thus, technology in VAA has a strong impact on the company’s strategic planning activities (Soares et al. 2007). Such extensive focus on technology may further reflect in significant advancements such as distribution and cost synergies facilitated through adequate technology solutions, web-page development, e-marketing and advertising activities. As mentioned, the airline highly values cultural diversity and tries its best to confront any culturally based inequity or injustice. Therefore, VAA demonstrates open and flexible culture based on high employee morale and relevant job satisfaction (Virgin Atlantic Official Website 2014). VAA indicates the importance of a power culture by focusing on constant innovations and delivering an optimal experience to its customers and employees. This shows that VAA has the potential to move quickly in the right direction and achieve its goals (Gosling 2013). There is little bureaucracy within the organisation, which contributes to the proper assignment of roles and responsibilities among the staff thereby increasing the chance of delivering optimal customer service. How Will VAA Benefit from International Trade? International trade represents a fundamental element of success for contemporary global organisations. International trade can significantly contribute to increased sales of VAA. The airline will benefit from international trade because of the importance the company places on commercial flights. By targeting international trade, VAA will spread its operations across different global locations (Gosling 2013). In other words, the most substantial benefit of international trade in the context of VAA refers to a significant sales market, implying flexible opportunities for market expansion. This can also help the airline build a positive image in various countries throughout the world (McLaren 2012). Thus, the company is expected to involve in extensive market research in order to explore different opportunities for international trade in specific locations. By entering the field of international trade, VAA can enjoy significant benefits of being a global airline. Global Factors Impact on the Activities of VAA VAA is a multinational company operating in different parts of the world. This means that global factors can affect the activities of the airline in certain ways. Changes in customer preferences across different world locations are one of those factors (McLaren 2012). Demographic trends also represent an important global factor that can influence the company’s operations. Moreover, it should be indicated that the increasing fuel prices and the global recession show trends that negatively affect the sales of VAA. The airline along with other competitors in the industry faces persistent global challenges from economic, political and social nature (Salai and Znidersic 2011). The dynamic scrutiny placed on security personnel and passengers’ baggage additionally complicates the global activities of VAA. However, it is expected that the constant progression of technology would expand the global presence of the airline. Impact of European Union Policies on the Activities of VAA One of the policies of the European Union is based on reductions in the obstacles of cross border trade and agreement. This would reflect in expanding VAA’s capacity to provide services to passengers in different locations with fewer restrictions in place (Harvey 2012). Moreover, such policy can have a positive impact on facilitating the airline’s flexibility in terms of frequency, capacity and price of certain routes determined between two or more countries. Such flexibility would mainly relate to VAA’s freedom to operate a particular route with adequate frequency and aircraft. Another EU policy can have an impact on the activities of VAA, respectively the harmonisation or approximation of technical and safety standards on substantial number of products and services (Harvey 2012). The airline is concerned with ensuring adequate safety by conducting monitoring activities. Other EU policies, such as closer approximation of excise duties and fiscal barriers as well as the removal of legal obstacles to trade have significantly alleviated VAA’s global expansion into different locations. Task Two Market Economic Systems A free market economic system does not place any restrictions on setting prices and supplying goods. It indicates the lack of economic intervention and regulation, with the exception to enforce private contracts and arrange specific conditions pertaining to the ownership of property. In such system the government has a neutral influence on the maintenance and legislation of economic activity (Sirico 2012). In fact, the role of the government reflects in either regulating industries or protecting them from various market pressures. In this way, a primary characteristic of a free market system is ownership, implying that almost all of the country’s factors of production emerge as privately owned. The specificity of the legal system allows the government to uphold the property rights of private individuals. In terms of objectives, all stakeholders in a free market economy system turn out determined by pure self-interest. From the perspective of consumers, welfare is maximised; th en, companies tend to maximise profits, and private individuals owning the factors of production try their best to maximise rents. Other important characteristics of a free market economic system include free enterprise, the precise level of competition, and the conditions of the pricing system. In order to clarify the concept of free enterprise, it is essential to note that companies usually try to sell anything they wish. Therefore, they provide effective responses to consumers, who can purchase anything that is sold by producers. The level of completion is quite high within this economic system due to the common assumption that virtually any market is extensively competitive in nature. The lack of barriers to entry or exit additionally intensifies the force of competition (Sirico 2012). The pricing system works on the principle of competition and thus the price mechanism allocates the resources available in the respective economy. Another major economic system is command, which is completely opposite to the free market economic system. A command economic system emerges with a powerful government sector and places importance on the subordinate position of employees and consumers. The government owns almost all of the country’s factors of production, as labour are the only exclusion (Castells 2011). All stakeholders in a command economic system, including employees, consumers and the government, focus on working for the common good. Unlike the free market economic system, the command economic system has no free enterprise. In addition, the level of competition is low; hence there is no price mechanism available simply because the government is responsible for setting the prices (Sirico 2012). The command economic system indicates the importance of a planning mechanism in the sense of considering the government’s fundamental role in planning the proper use of all available resources. The third type of economy system is mixed, which includes aspects of both the free market and command economic systems. An essential feature of the mixed economic system is that certain economic decisions are made by individuals in the market (Castells 2011). Nonetheless, the government has a particular impact on the allocation and distribution of resources. The most significant question facing mixed economic systems refers to finding the right mix between the public and private sectors of the economy. In practice, the mixed economic system indicates the presence of both privately-owned and state-owned enterprises (Farrant and McPhail 2009). Therefore, there is a certain degree of private economic freedom within the respective system as well as centralised economic planning. I believe that the mixed economic system allocates resources more effectively than the other two systems. In a mixed economy both market forces and government decisions are of equal importance, which contributes to the optimal allocation of resources. Yet market forces turn out to prevail in the mixed economic system (Farrant and McPhail 2009). The role of the government in such system is precisely determined to reflect fair and equal distribution of resources. In addition, the government is responsible for providing different forms of welfare which help the development of the economy. The fact that the mixed economic system combines features from the free market and command systems is indicative of its efficacy considering the benefits obtained from two types or approaches of resources allocation and distribution (Castells 2011). Yet it can be concluded that all economies in reality turn out mixed economies despite differences in the precise mix and balance between public and privat e sectors. Task Three Market Structures Prices and output decisions of organisations extensively depend on costs because companies always try to maximise their profits. Profit maximisation occurs at a point where marginal revenue is almost equal to marginal cost (Sutton 2007). If companies consider cost structure, then they usually mean the size and the precise ratio of capital to labour. Although these aspects present certain factors in prices and output decisions, they are identified as long term decisions rather than short-term decisions. Yet it is essential to mention that in the long run all costs emerge as variable. In a perfect competitive market, the presence of many buyers and sellers is evident, implying each one of them is a price taker and all sellers tend to supply the same products to customers (Villas-Boas 2007). However, in the long run companies are required to freely enter or exit the respective market. Furthermore, a perfect competitive market indicates that organisations are unable to control prices due to the fact that goods have perfect substitutes. This results in a quite substantial number of sellers and buyers, which facilitates companies’ ability to enter and exit the market. Therefore, in a perfect competitive market, prices are determined in accordance with a collective principle by market supply and demand. The demand curve appears perfectly elastic (Villas-Boas 2007). Even though companies in a perfect competitive market are unable to control prices, they at least can exert control upon the level of output which is closely associated with the profit-maximising level. In turn, a perfect competitive market is identified as ensuring pure allocative efficiency (Belleflamme and Peitz 2010). The allocation of resources occurs in such a manner to allow maximum net benefit, and thus consumers would be able to obtain more goods at lower prices than other market structures. The concept of monopoly suggests a market in which a single producer turns out to control the entire supply of goods which have no any close substitutes. Under the specific conditions of monopoly, the distinction between a single company and industry is invalid because of the sole presence of one producer (Sutton 2007). It has been indicated that the monopolistic market system imposes restrictions on the entry of new companies. As a result of such extensive control over the supply of products in the market, the monopolist tends to generate substantial profit in both the short run and in the long run. In this context, cost curves reflect only one level of output that can be produced at lowest cost. In this way, monopolists are able to determine both price and output (Belleflamme and Peitz 2010). Price is usually higher and output is lower in monopoly unlike the situation in a perfect competitive market. In monopolistic competition, companies are also oriented in a direction to maximise profits. However, monopolistic competitive mechanisms of determining prices and output decisions indicate adequate control of organisations (Villas-Boas 2007). They are able to control prices due to product differentiation. Yet the precise amount that consumers prefer to pay is closely associated with their preference for various products in the market. In monopolistic competition, the substitution effect and the income effect appear important for determining prices and output decisions. Therefore, the demand curve in monopolistic competition is downward sloping (Belleflamme and Peitz 2010). Yet such preferences may not be that influential predictor of determining consumers’ purchasing decisions. For instance, if the prices of particular products are significantly increased, then consumers may prefer cheaper alternatives because of the influence of the substitution effect and the income effect altogether. In such system of competition, society needs to pay much more for goods than the cost needed by companies to produce those goods. However, it is improper to claim that an imperfect competitive market lacks efficiency (Sutton 2007). Society apparently values product differentiation because of the consumers’ willingness to pay higher prices for goods identified with cheaper substitutes. In a perfect competitive market, the focus is on attaining product homogenous characteristics in terms of providing goods that are perfect substitutes (Twomey and Neuhoff 2010). This aspect indicates that companies in a perfect competitive market are more likely to earn normal profit unlike monopolists that generate substantial profit. Moreover, oligopolies represent another type of market structure. Oligopolies usually consist of a few organisations, each with a substantial share of the market. Nevertheless, cost structures are the same as in other market systems because of the necessity for companies to maximise profits in the market (Sutton 2007). Unlike a perfect competitive market and monopolistic competition, oligopolies indicate higher market prices and lower output. Yet organisations in oligopolies present a unique feature in the sense of demonstrating the trend of not increasing or lowering prices. This is simply done because of the elasticity of demand at higher prices and inelasticity of demand at lower prices (Twomey and Neuhoff 2010). In other words, the process of increasing and lowering prices would most probably result in substantial revenue losses. Even though there are costs to society in oligopoly, the market price does not indicate the scarcity or extensive availability of input resources. Conclusion The paper indicated a relevant structure of three parts in order to provide sufficient details about the discussed problems. The first part of the assignment considered the performance of VAA and how different external factors affect its presence in the airline industry. The second part was associated with providing evidence on allocating and distributing resources in free market, command economic system and mixed economic system. This part not only listed the specific characteristics of the mentioned systems but also ensured insights into the greater effectiveness of the mixed economic system that the free market and command economic systems. The third task explored the way in which prices and output decisions are determined in four distinct market systems such as a perfect competitive market, monopoly, monopolistic competition and oligopoly. References Belleflamme, P. and Peitz, M. (2010) Industrial Organization: Markets and Strategies, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press British Red Cross Official Website (2014) History and Origin [Online]. Available at: redcross.org.uk/About-us/Who-we-are/History-and-origin [Accessed: 8 May 2014]. Burrows III, R. P. (2012) The Market-Driven Supply Chain: A Revolutionary Model for Sales and Operations Planning in the New On-Demand Economy, New York, AMACOM Castells, M. (2011) The Rise of the Network Society: The Information Age: Economy, Society, and Culture, New York, Wiley Farrant, A. and McPhail, E. (2009) ‘Hayek, Samuelson, and the Logic of the Mixed Economy?’, Journal of Economic Behavior Organization, Vol. 69(1) pp5-16 Gosling, E. (2013) ‘Virgin Atlantic Launches Little Red Domestic Flight Service’, Design Week, pp5-5 Harvey, F. (2012) EU Energy Policy Drives Changes in UK-with Mixed Results. The Guardian [Online]. Available at: theguardian.com/environment/2012/jan/25/eu-energy-policy-changes-uk [Accessed: 8 May 2014]. Macsai, D. (2009) ‘Virgin Atlantic’s 25th Anniversary’, Fast Company, 136 pp28-28 McLaren, J. (2012) International Trade, New York, Wiley Moon, M. A. (2013) Demand and Supply Integration: The Key to World-Class Demand Forecasting, Upper Saddle River, FT Press Office of Fair Trading (2011) Virgin Atlantic Airways: Immunity Review [Online]. Available at: oft.gov.uk/shared_oft/ca-and-cartels/OFT1398.pdf [Accessed: 8 May 2014]. O’Kane, M. and Nakhwai, J. (2013) Change to the Cartel Offence by the Enterprise and Regulatory Reform Act 2013. Practical Law: A Thomson Reuters Legal Solution [Online]. Available at: http://uk.practicallaw.com/1-530-5199?source=relatedcontent [Accessed: 8 May 2014]. Osborne, A. (2010) Recession Cut Air Travel Demand by a Quarter, Finds Civil Aviation Authority. The Telegraph [Online]. Available at: telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/transport/8224099/Recession-cut-air-travel-demand-by-a-quarter-finds-Civil-Aviation-Authority.html [Accessed: 8 May 2014]. Prasch, R. E. (2008) How Markets Work: Supply, Demand and the Real World, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar Salai, S. and Znidersic, R. K. (2011) ‘Marketing Research in the Contemporary Consumer Environment’, Management Information Systems, Vol. 6(4) pp15-22 Sirico, R. A. (2012) Defending the Free Market: The Moral Case for a Free Economy, Washington, Regnery Publishing Soares, A. M., Farhangmehr, M. and Shoham, A. (2007) ‘Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture in International Marketing Studies’, Journal of Business Research, Vol. 60 pp277-284 Sutton, J. (2007) Sunk Costs and Market Structure: Price Competition, Advertising, and the Evolution of Concentration, Massachusetts, The MIT Press Twomey, P. and Neuhoff, K. (2010) ‘Wind Power and Market Power in Competitive Markets’, Energy Policy, Vol. 38(7) pp3198-3210 Villas-Boas, S. B. (2007) ‘Vertical Relationships between Manufacturers and Retailers: Inference with Limited Data’, The Review of Economic Studies, Vol. 74(2) pp625-652 Virgin Atlantic Official Website (2014) About Us [Online]. Available at: virgin-atlantic.com/gb/en/footer/about-us.html [Accessed: 8 May 2014].

Science and Technology as the Engine of Economic Growth and Essay

Science and Technology as the Engine of Economic Growth and Development - Essay Example The creation of factories and new mills heralded increased opportunities for employment of ordinary working people and hence was largely, responsible for the rise of modern cities. Manchester was arguably the world’s first industrial city. In spite of the fact that Industrialization led to the population rise due to unprecedented reduction in the infant mortality rate the childhood surviving conditions did not improve (Mabel,1926).There was limited scope of education, and many children were forced to work at very low wages and harsh conditions. Eventually, being opposed to the child labor, many reform acts were framed by the government to stop exploitation of the working class. B. The period of Industrial Revolution witnessed the victory of middle class industrialists and businessman over the feudalists. Moreover, the scientific Revolution of 17th century resulted in development of international trade and creation of financial markets enhancing accumulation of capital. People started thinking to raise income and earn profits by entering into new privately owned business and professions. The advancements in mechanization of agriculture, factory system of manufacturing with powerful machines characterized by division of labor marked a global acceptance to the capitalist mode of production commonly known as Capitalism. (Burnham, 2003). C. The advent of industrial capitalism especially in the 19th century widened the socioeconomic gap between the working class and the industrialists. Unfair distribution of wealth and power, entrepreneurs’ tendency toward market monopoly; economic instability, unemployment and various forms of cultural exploitation were other connected issues that eventually led to the transformation of capitalism to communism (skilling, 435-451). 1. Capitalism is an economic system where the means of production and profit earned remained in the hands of private owners.

Human organs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Human organs - Essay Example However controversial such sales may be deemed by many, truth is that advantages offered by this outweigh all disadvantages put together. The following discussion will help to prove this argument by providing evidence about shrinking number of donors of organs like kidneys in the light of reputable research. Thoughts of proponents and opponents in context of development of a proper market for human organs in the UK will also be scrutinized. Final section will include some suggestions, supported by important macro-marketing concepts, regarding modifications required in the current arrangements made in the UK to enhance the rate of organ supply. Earth-shattering controversy, which has enveloped organ sales since the beginning of times, originates from a particular kind of reverence for the human body. To consider this body a biological machine with replaceable parts is a matter of shame for many. Even with advanced science and technology, it is considered a huge taboo also in many societies. The human body is thought of as a sacred temple and this idea reinforces various â€Å"beliefs and rituals to care for the body after death† (Petechuk 2006, p. 73). There are deeply ingrained boundaries on what can be done with a human body, the boundaries which are established by religion, society, and human psychology. Controversy also picks momentum when complications affecting kidney donors’ health are exaggerated due to inclusion of bias in collected data. But, this much stands true that prior permission of a person is must in all cases because long and painful wait for organ transplants does â€Å"not erase the righ ts of some to utilize their organs as they see fit† (Cherry 2005, p. 144). The number of kidney donors is low in the UK compared to Scandinavian countries according to medical research. It is claimed by data collected

Parole Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words - 1

Parole - Essay Example However, there has been a consensus among the players within the criminal justice system that incarceration is not the most appropriate measure to all offenders. It is in the light of this consensus that parole and probation systems were developed in order to provide alternative and appropriate ways of addressing specific types of offenders (Welsh and Harris, 2008). These systems have had remarkable impacts within the criminal justice system; but they have also had some shortcomings as well. Particularly, parole has been regarded as an early release option that puts the public at unnecessary risk. On the other hand, there are those who argue that it allows the re-integration of offenders into the community and provides better prospects for rehabilitation (Broadhurst, 2001). This paper will seek to understand the parole system by discussing its pros and cons. In addition, it will discuss whether parole is currently over-utilized or under-utilized in Australia, or whether proper balanc e has been struck. Yoshimura (2000) defines parole as a process that involves conditionally releasing an offender from prison so that he or she can serve the remaining sentence in the community according to the sentences terms that the court would impose. Often, offenders released under parole serve the remaining sentence in the community under community corrections officer supervision. Parole is considered as a conditional release from the prison because the release of the offenders is based on certain conditions such as prisoners agreeing to obey specific restrictions imposed by the court. It should be noted that the parole release decisions basis vary across jurisdiction and time (Proctor, 1999). For example, parole can be offered as an entitlement to offenders after they have served a specified minimum imprisonment term. Similarly, parole can be used as a reward for offender’s good behavior. Nonetheless, the bottom line is that granting of release on parole is based on

How Realism caused the Global Financial Crisis

How Realism caused the Global Financial Crisis The global financial crisis is commonly believed to have begun in July 2007 with the credit crunch, when a loss of confidence by US investors in the value of sub-prime mortgages caused a liquidity crisis. The housing market in the United States suffered greatly as many home owners who had taken out sub-prime loans found they were unable to meet their mortgage repayments. As the value of homes plummeted, the borrowers found themselves with negative equity. With a large number of borrowers defaulting on loans, banks were faced with a situation where the repossessed house and land was worth less on todays market than the bank had loaned out originally. The banks had a liquidity crisis on their hands. The housing collapse in the United States is commonly referred to as the trigger for the global financial crisis. Liberalism is built on the fundamental assumption that human nature is rational and thus good. Humans are capable of cooperative behaviour, and destructive behaviour is a result of bad societies, institutions and/or governments. As such, the Liberal school of thought has a strong belief in progress, particularly the notion that humans are perfectible. Thus all humans deserve basic rights, liberty and equality. Consequently, Liberalism has a deep concern with improving the welfare of all people. In a highly developed nation like the USA, many would argue home-ownership is a vital aspect of welfare. In the modern world, constant economic growth is essential for progress of this nature. Liberals believe the optimal way of achieving economic growth is through free trade and markets. There must be freedom for private powers (business) at the expense of public power (government.) Free markets and trade will organically synchronise the supply and demand of resources and government attempts to control or regulate the market will only make that process less efficient. Free trade enables the execution of other core Liberal beliefs, such as the concepts of cooperation and integration. Through economic interdependence based on mutual benefit, the possibility of conflict between nation-states is reduced. Furthermore, economic cooperation creates wealth, development and growth for all involved. This process of rapid cross-border movement of goods, services, technology and capital is known as globalisation. However, with the positives of economic interdependence come the risks financial toxicity in the USA economic system spread world-wide like wildfire. Realism, created as a response to Idealism, is currently the dominant school of thought in international relations. The premise is that nation-states are the dominant actors in a value-free system of international relations, which take place in an environment of permanent international anarchy and revolves around power. The main tenets of the theory are statism, survival, and self-help. Realism accepts the power of the free trade, but not only rejects the notion that government intervention causes market inefficiency, but believes that public power exerting regulatory control leads to the optimal outcome. Realism favours the use of high tariffs to protect infant or venerable domestic industries from foreign competition until they have built up the capacity to compete on the world market. The Realist hijack (through intervention) of the Liberal free-market has undermined the Liberal system overall and is the primary cause of the global-financial-crisis. Other views of international relation schools of thought in the context of global economics include the Marxist view and the Constructivist view. Marxists believe that only vigorous application of strong public power can check the innate tendency of private power benefiting the elite at the expense of the population at large. Constructivists trust that a unit, in addition to its material interests, will also act based on political and economic identities and values. According to Realists, the global-financial-crisis was a result of the Liberal free market enabling Wall Street to act upon its greed unchecked. And today we see how utterly mistaken was the Milton Friedman notion that a market system can regulate itself. We see how silly the Ronald Reagan slogan was that government is the problem, not the solution. This prevailing ideology of the last few decades has now been reversed. Everyone understands now, on the contrary, that there can be no solution without government. The classical Liberal perspective is quick to point out that Realist public policy, hoping to control the market in order to achieve optimal outcomes (in this case a push for greater home ownership), distorted the natural market feedback loops of profit and loss. Capitalism is a profit and loss system. The profits encourage risk taking. The losses encourage prudence. When taxpayers absorb the losses, the distorted result is reckless and imprudent risk taking. The governments Realist policy to push for greater home ownership led to government-sponsored enterprises to, in essence, guarantee mortgages. In the US, householders can hand their property over to the bank and walk away if they cannot pay their mortgage. As the aforementioned government intervention significantly reduced the risk of underwriting mortgages for banks, they began to underwrite mortgages to anyone, even unqualified borrowers who were getting mortgages for houses they could never afford. As many of the sub-prime borrowers got behind in their repayments, they were evicted or they walked away. But with so many houses now coming up for sale, prices fell sharply. With so many borrowers defaulting on mortgages, the supply of houses far outweighed the demand. Consequently, the banks repossessed houses were worth less on todays market than when the banks had originally loaned them out. This liquidity crisis triggered the global-financial-crisis. Public-policy decisions have perverted the incentives that naturally create stability in financial markets and the market for housing. Over the last three decades, government policy has coddled creditors, reducing the risk they face from financing bad investments. Not surprisingly, this encouraged risky investments financed by borrowed money. The increasing use of debt mixed with housing policy, monetary policy, and tax policy crippled the housing market and the financial sector. Liberals argue that this is the reason the markets must be free of government control. As long as Realists believe that interfering with the market can make their nation-state better (i.e. greater home ownership for Americans), there will be opportunity and incentive for corporate lobbyists (in this case from Wall Street) to attempt to manipulate government for its own advantage. Free-markets work because they align the individual greed of man (ironically a fundamental aspect of Realism) with the common good of the nation-state. Realism intervention corrupts that alignment by creating a system that can be gamed. Realists often accuse Liberals of being idealistic to a fault. Ironically, it was the Realists making reality conform to their ideals that created the distortion of government economic policies, leading to short-sighted intervention in the relatively free market. This resulted in the unintentional long-term consequence of perverting the natural incentives of productivity profit and loss which, in turn, ultimately triggered the global-financial-crisis. It was government intervention in the markets that created the crisis and that less, not more, regulation is what the system needs to heal and to survive. Marcell Acs 109790

What To Do About Ethnic Cleans Essay -- essays research papers

WHAT TO DO ABOUT ETHNIC CLEANSING? BACKGROUND PAPER   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1994, unrest swept through the Maryland-sized African nation of Rwanda. Thousands of Hutu extremists launched a massive assault on the Tutsi, who traditionally make up Rwanda's upper class, killing hundreds of thousands of innocent people (Night Rider – 'most days';). The United States immediately responded to this slaughter by turning the other way, denying that a problem existed until years after the genocide had ceased. In 1999, ethnic cleansing (hostility between ethnic groups) broke out in Kosovo in a less severe form. This time, instead of being killed, the Kosovars were driven out of their homes and neighborhoods. This time, United States and NATO forces immediately confronted the problem by launching a substantial air war on the area. Clearly, the doctrine for ethnic cleansing is widely varied, and merits further discussion.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ethnic cleansing is a 'phrase for an attempt to purge an area of an unwanted ethnic group. It can include deportation, intimidation, and acts of genocide or mass murder.'; (Encarta, 'Ethnic cleansing';). It occurs most frequently in third world countries. Whenever it arises, it is followed by a host of moral questions. Do we just stay out completely and allow the country to deal with its own problems? Or, if we decide to take action, do we merely send medical aid or help militarily? Should we send in the army? Or is an air war the only acceptable option? It all comes down to an ethical issue, with one group insisting that preventing the loss of lives is paramount. The other side states that ethnic cleansing is caused by a fundamental disagreement between two ethnic groups, so unless we allow the groups to resolve their own issues, they can never be content and productive.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Whenever any human rights issue breaks out, there are differing opinions on the appropriate course of action. The difference in the case of ethnic cleansing is that this issue is much more critical than almost any other human rights issue. In the case of ethnic cleansing, the United States' approach to intervention could determine the fates of thousands of people. In cases of extreme ethnic cleansing, intervention can take place on an international level, with many nations cooperating in an attempt to br... ... not affect its neighbors adversely. This middle ground supports certain parts of both sides. It believes that while the country should be allowed to conduct its own internal affairs as it sees fit, as soon as the conflict oversteps the nation's borders, we must intervene to prevent the trouble from spreading as it did during the holocaust.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At the present moment, the pro-action side is most influential in determining strategies for dealing with ethnic cleansing. This is illustrated by the Kosovo conflict. Only a few years previously, the anti-action approach was in favor; no outside intervention occurred during the Rwandan genocide. No predictions forecast an end to the issues of ethnic cleansing. As long as distinction can be made between groups, that distinction will be made, and as long as that distinction is made, there will be a few warmongers who will take advantage and cause bloodshed. Although the madness of a few people will not always spread, once in a while it will go out of control, leading to a massive genocide such as in Germany and Rwanda. And when there is another massive wholesale destruction, what will the world powers do about it?

Curriculum Development: Process

MODULE 5 Models in Curriculum Development INTRODUCTION Curriculum development is concerned with the drawing up of plans for teaching and learning activities in classroom situations that will bring about positive changes in the lives of the learners. It is based on the school’s mission and goals and identifies ways of translating these into a coherent and coordinated program of meaningful experiences and conditions eliciting responses that will lead to the transformation of the learners into authentic, warm and sensitive human beings (Palma, 1992). Moreover, the all-important process of curriculum development has only one function, and that is, the formation of the â€Å"Ideal Graduate. † This becomes the ultimate measure of the success or failure of the total school enterprise. It should be pointed out, however, that the conception of the â€Å"Ideal Graduate† will vary since it depends on the school’s peculiar clientele, ecology and thrusts. General Objective. To know the different models of curriculum evaluation. Specific Objectives. After reading this module, you should be able to: . Know and understand what is curriculum development. 2. Identify the different models in curriculum development 3. Know and understand the steps in curriculum development. 4. Answer the questions given at the last page of this module. 1. The Michaelis Model The Michaelis model for curriculum development has been named after the principal author of the book New Designs for Elementary Curriculum and Instruction (2nd ed. , 1975 ), by John U. Michaelis. His co-authors were Ruth H. Grossman and Lloyd F. Scott. Although their book is oriented to the elementary level, this model for curriculum development may be adapted to the secondary and tertiary levels. The Michaelis model includes the components generally recognized as essential to curriculum development. It is designed for use in two ways. First, it may serve as a guide to the development or revision of the curriculum. Second, the model may serve as a guide for the review and analysis of the curriculum (Aquino, 1986). Components of the Michaelis Model: (a) Foundations of curriculum development There are five major sources of ideas that serve as the foundations for curriculum planning. The historical foundations are useful in identifying the problem issues, and perspective. An examination of the historical foundations of the curriculum points up threads of continuity as well as instances of rejection of precedents and illustrates the way in which the curriculum, at any point in time, is also a production that time. The philosophical foundations may be drawn upon to develop a framework of values and beliefs related to the goals, the selection and use knowledge and means and methods and other dimensions of education. The social foundations are sources of informations and societal values, changes, problems, pressures and forces that merit consideration in curriculum planning, the Psychological foundation contains ideas about child growth, development and learning on which the program may be based. The disciplinary foundations serve as sources of information about concepts, generalizations, supporting data and modes, methods, and processes of inquiry that may be used in developing the curriculum and planning instruction. (b)Goals and objectives Related to the analysis of the foundations of curriculum development are he major goals of education that gives direction to planning at all levels and in all areas of the curriculum, the objectives must be consistent with, but more specific than goals so that immediate direction is obtained for intuitional planning ad evaluation. The general goals should be cooperatively developed by school personnel and lay persons and be generally acceptable to the commun ity, the objectives should be defended by school personnel with assistance from experts in areas of the curriculum, evaluation, and formulation of objectives so that they will be optimally useful in planning and appraisal activities. Each area of the curriculum should be analyzed to identify its specific contributions to the major goals. This step is helpful in developing a coherent curriculum in which all areas or fields of study are viewed as contributing to the common goals. This step is helpful in identifying the unique contributing that each area can make to the goals and thus makes possible the design of a complete and balanced program of instruction that incorporates aesthetic and others. The objectives of each area may be viewed as a detailed elaboration of contributions to the major goals. Their function is to provide specific direction to program planning. The four sets of interrelated objectives that include the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains are as follows: skill objectives, and affective objectives. Special categories may be used to highlight the contribution of some areas such as, for example visual/tactile objectives, creative expression objectives and aesthetic judgment objectives, objectives in art education within such special categories, however, one may find conceptual, process, skill, and affective in behavioral or performance terms is done to facilitate unit and lesson planning and to evaluate instructional out comes. c) Organization of the curriculum Decisions must be made about the organization of the curriculum, the units within particular areas of curriculum, unit organization, and unit planning procedures, the scope or breadth of the curriculum must be determined and special attention must be given to learning sequences that provide for cumulative learning and the integration of learning. Other decision must be made about curriculum development procedures, broad fields or other patens or organization the roles of curriculum personnel, and the design of curriculum guides. d)Organization and extension of the learning environment The school organization must be considered in terms both the movement of students from level (vertical organization) and of the grouping of students and the placement of teachers at the various levels (horizontal organization). Attention also needs to be given to individualized and personalized instruction organizing and sequencing of group work, and interaction analysis. Variety of ways of extending the learning environment merits consideration, ranging from open education to time and spatial extensions, and the use of the community as a laboratory for learning. Instructional media should be analyzed because of their fundamental importance as key ingredients in the learning environment. The full range of educational technology, including hardware such as equipment and software or courseware such as instructional materials, should be examined and selected in terms of multiple criteria. Provision should be made for instructional media that are useful in all areas of instruction and for special media needed in particular area. A variety of printed materials, audio-visual materials, community resources, learning packages, multi-media sets of materials and multi-level materials should be considered. (e)Instructional support services The implementation of new or revised programs of instruction requires a variety of support services, the quality of leadership essential to sound curriculum development is also essential to implementation. Consultant and supervisory services are needed to help solve general problem and problems related to areas of instruction, other needed services include those related to instructional medial, special education programs the diagnosis and correction of learning difficulties, evaluation, and the in-service education and the instructional staff. (f)Teaching strategies A variety of teaching strategies should be selected or designed for us in the instructional program. There is a need for inductive strategies that include moves from the particular to the general and deductive strategies that include moves from general to the particular. Discovery strategies in which the students themselves find out on their own and teacher-directed strategies in which the students are guided systematically to in stated objectives are needed, along with strategies the call for varying degrees of teacher guidance, combinations of the preceding strategies may be used to be develop and apply concepts, clarify values, and attain other objectives as various media are used in different areas of the curriculum. In additions, construction should be given to the guidelines or principles of instruction for each area of the curriculum. g) Evaluation and accountability Diagnostic, formative and summative evaluations are needed to determine the needs of students assess progress towards objectives during instruction and appraised the outcomes of instruction at the end of given periods. A brad and comprehensive program of evaluation is needed in which a variety of instruments and techniques are used to evaluate the conceptual, process, skill, and e ffective outcomes of instruction. 2. The Tyler Model One of the best known models for curriculum development with special attention to the planning phases is Ralph W. Tyler’s in his classic little book, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction, â€Å"The Tyler Rationale†, a process for selecting educational objectives, is widely known and practiced in curriculum circles. Although Tyler proposed a rather comprehensive model for curriculum development, the first part of his model, the selection of objectives, received the greatest attention from other educators. Tyler recommended that curriculum planners identify general objectives by gathering data from three sources: the learner, contemporary life outside the school, and the subject matter. After identifying numerous general objectives, the planners refine these by filtering them through two screens: the educational and social philosophy of the school and the psychology of learning. The general objectives that successfully pass through the two screens become specific instructional objectives. In describing general objectives, Tyler referred to them as â€Å"goals†, â€Å"educational objectives†, and â€Å"educational purposes†. The curriculum developer begins his or her search for educational objectives by gathering and analyzing data relevant to student needs and interests. The total range of educational needs, social, occupational, physical, psychological, and recreational is studied. Tyler recommended observations by teachers, interviews with students, interviews with parents, questionnaires, and tests as techniques for collecting data about students. By examining the needs and interest of students, the curriculum developer identifies a set of potential objectives. Analysis of contemporary life in both the local community and in society at large is the next step in the process of formulating general objectives. Tyler suggested that curriculum planners develop a classification scheme that divides life into various aspects such as health, family, recreation, vocation, religion, consumption, and civic roles. From the needs of society flow many potential educational objectives. It is apparent that the curriculum worker must â€Å"be somewhat of a sociologist to make an intelligent analysis of needs of social institutions. After considering this second source, the curriculum worker has lengthened his/her set of objectives. For a third source, the curriculum planner turns to the subject matter, the disciplines themselves. It should be remembered that many of the curricular innovations of the 1950s the new math, audio-lingual foreign languages, and the plethora of science programs came from the subject matter specialists. From the three aforementioned sources, curriculum planners derived a multiplicity of general or broad objectives which lack precision and which one would prefer to call instructional goals. These goals may be pertinent to specific disciplines or may cut across disciplines. Tyler’s model emphasized the use of educational and social philosophy as the first screen for the goals. He urged the teachers to outline their values and illustrate this task by emphasizing four (4) democratic goals: (a) the recognition of the importance of every individual human being regardless of his race, national, social or economic status, (b) opportunity for wide participation in all phases of activities in the social groups in the society, (c) encouragement of variability rather than demanding a single type of personality, and (d) faith in intelligence as a method of dealing with important problems rather than depending upon the authority of an autocratic or aristocratic group. The application of the psychological screen is the next step in the Tyler model. To apply this, teachers must clarify the principles of learning that they believe to be sound. â€Å"A psychology of learning,† Tyler said, â€Å"not only includes specific and definite findings but it also involves a unified formulation of a theory of learning which helps to outline the nature of the learning process, how it takes place, under what conditions, what sort of mechanisms operate and the like. Effective application of this screen presupposes adequate training in educational psychology and in human growth and development by those charged with the task of curriculum development. After the curriculum planner has applied this second screen, his/her list of general objectives will be reduced, leaving those that are most significant and feasible. Care is then taken to state the objectives in behavioral terms, which turns them into instructional and classroom objectives. After the selection of educational objectives, the Tyler’s model goes beyond this process to describe three more steps in curriculum planning: selection, organization, and evaluation of learning experiences. He defined learning experiences as â€Å"the interaction between the learner and the external conditions in the environment to which he can react. Tyler posited four basic questions for the school, namely: 1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain? 2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes? 3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized? 4. How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained or not? By addressing the assessment of curriculum development systematically, Tyler introduced the concept of a structural cycle whereby evaluation can lead to a reconsideration of purpose. Such a cycle reduces the somewhat cumbersome process of planning and makes it possible to treat curriculum-making in a systematic manner. The three fundamental elements include: (a) purpose which indicates the goals and directions the school should take, (b) means which suggest the learning experiences and resources that are to be selected, organized, and implemented in pursuit of the purpose, and (c) assessment of outcomes, which measures the degree to which purposes have been met. The following model (Figure 1) shows the systematic view of the curriculum in graphic form: Figure 1. System view of curriculum The three subsystems – Purpose, Means, and Assessment – are enclosed in a circle suggesting that they constitute the totality of curriculum. The circle is also indicative of the continuous process of curriculum development. Curriculum is far from being static. We can never speak of a â€Å"finished curriculum. † Curriculum is always â€Å"tentative† and is meant to undergo a process of development to bring it to ever higher levels of effectiveness. The concurrent process of planning and implementing, evaluating and revising the curriculum goes on in a never-ending cycle always taking into consideration the constantly shifting needs of the learners, the emerging thrusts of the school and its sponsors, the changing expectations of the larger society, and the exigencies of the times. The two-way arrows indicate the dynamic interaction and relationships that should exist among the subsystems if the system is to function well. The arrowheads in the outer circle going counter-clockwise indicate the normal sequence in the process of curriculum planning and development. Logically, the first step should be the determination of purpose and objectives. However, in curriculum development it is possible that one can start with any step. One might even begin with the assessment or evaluation phase. Using the result of this evaluation or assessment, we can examine and make adjustments in the purpose and the means of attaining this purpose. The all-important process of curriculum development is the formation of the â€Å"Ideal Graduate. † 3. The Stufflebeam CIPP Evaluation Model According to Stufflebeam, evaluation is undertaken for the purpose of acquiring fundamental knowledge about the [program, making decisions or judgments, getting data or information as the basis of the program planning intervention. Furthermore, evaluation helps one understand the factors which make which make for success or failure with a view of finding out how the program can be improved (Posner, 1995). The Phi Delta Kappa National Study Committee on Evaluation, chaired by Daniel L. Stufflebeam, produced and disseminated a widely cited model of evaluation known as CIPP (Context, Input, Process, Product) model. Comprehensive in nature, the model reveals types of evaluation, of decision setting of decisions, and of change. In shaping their model, Stufflebeam and his associates defined evaluation in the following way: â€Å"Evaluation is the process of delineating, obtaining, and providing useful information for judging decision alternative†. Stufflebeam clarified what was meant by each of the parts of the definition as follows: 1. Process. A particular, continuing and cyclical activity subsuming many methods and in using a number of steps or operations. . Delineating. Focusing information requirement to be served by evaluation through such steps as specifying, and explicating. 3. Obtaining. Making available through such processes as collecting, organizing, and analyzing, and through such formal means as statistics and measurement. 4. Providing. Fitting together into systems or subsystems that best serve the needs or purposes of the evaluation. 5. Useful. Appropriate to predetermined c riteria evolved through the interaction of the evaluator and client. 6. Information. Descriptive or interpretive data about entities (tangible or intangible) and their relationships. 7. Judging. Assigning weights in accordance with a specified value framework, criteria derived there from, and information which relates criteria to each entity being judged. 8. Decision Alternatives. A set of optional responses to a specified decision question. The evaluation process, said Stufflebeam, includes the three main steps of delineating, obtaining, and providing. These steps provide the basis for a methodology of evaluation. In the flow chart form the model which consists of rectangles (with small loops attached), hexagons, ovals, a circle, a fancy E, solid and broken lines with arrows and three types of shading. Crosshatched, the hexagons show types of decisions, hatched, the ovals, the circle, and the big E depict activities performance; and mottled, the rectangle stands four types of evaluation (Figure 4). Four types of evaluation. The Phi Delta Kappa National Committee pointed to four types of evaluation: Context, Input, Process, and Product, hence the name of the model, CIPP. Context evaluation is the most basic kind of evaluation. Its purpose is to provide a rationale for determination of objectives. At this point in the model, curriculum planner-evaluators define the environment of the curriculum, and determine unmet needs and reasons why needs are not being met. Goals and objectives are specified on the basis of context evaluation. Input evaluation is that evaluation of the purpose of which is â€Å"to provide information for determining how to utilize resources to achieve project objectives†. The resources of the school and various designs for carrying out the curriculum are considered. At this stage, the planner-evaluators decide on procedures to be used. Process evaluation is the provision of periodic feedback while the curriculum is being implemented. It has three main objectives – the first is to detect or predict defects in the procedural design or its implementation stages. The second is to provide information for programmed decisions, and the third is to maintain a record of the procedure as it occurs. Product evaluation the final type, has as its purpose â€Å"to measure and interpret attainments not only at the end of a project cycle, but often as necessary during the project term†. The general method of project evaluation includes devising operational definitions of objectives, measuring criteria associated with the objective of the activity, comparing these measurements with predetermined absolute or relative standards, and making rational interpretations of the outcomes using the recorded context, input and process information. Four types of decision. The hexagons represent four types of decision: Planning, Structuring, Implementing, and Recycling. Note that planning decisions follow context evaluation; structuring decision follow input evaluation; implementing decisions follow process evaluation; and recycling decision follow product evaluation. Three types of changes. In these setting, three types of changes may results: neomobilistic, incremental, and homeostatic. Neomobilistic change occurs in a setting in which a large change is sought on the basis of low information. These changes are innovative solutions based on little evidence. Incremental changes are a series of small changes based on low information is so rare that it is not shown in the CIPP model. Homeostatic change goes back to structuring decisions. The model plots the sequence of evaluation and making from context evaluation to recycling decisions. The committee has touched up the model with small loops that lock like bulbs on the evaluation blocks to indicate that the general process of delineating, obtaining, and providing information is cyclical and applies to each type of evaluation. The ovals, the circle, and the E in the model represent types of activities, types of change, and adjustment as a result of the evaluations made and decision taken. The CIPP model presents a comprehensive view of evaluation process. Said the Phi Delta Kappa Committee: â€Å"To maximize the effectiveness and efficiency of evaluation, evaluation itself should be evaluated†¦the criteria for this include internal validity, expervasiveness, timeliness, and efficiency†. 5. The Taba Model Taba took what is known as a grass-roots approach to curriculum development. She believed that the curriculum should be designed by the teachers rather than handed down by higher authority. Further, she felt that teachers should begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning units for their students in their schools rather than by engaging initially in creating a general curriculum design. Taba, therefore, advocated an inductive approach to curriculum development, starting with specifics and building up to a general design as opposed to the more traditional deductive approach of starting with the general design and working down to the specifics. To improve and refine the Tyler model, Hilda Taba listed a five-step sequence for accomplishing curriculum change, as follows: 1. Production by teachers of pilot teaching-learning units representative of the grade level or subject area. Taba saw this step as linking theory and practice. She proposed the following eight-step sequence for curriculum developers who are producing pilot units: a) Diagnosis of needs. The curriculum developer begins by determining the needs of the students for whom the curriculum is being planned. Taba directs the curriculum worker to diagnose the â€Å"gaps, deficiencies, and variations in students’ backgrounds. † b) Formulation of objectives. After students’ needs have been diagnosed, the curriculum planner specifies objectives to be accomplished. Interestingly, Taba uses the terms â€Å"goals† and â€Å"objectives†. c) Selection of content. The subject matter or topics to be studied stem directly from the objectives Taba pointed out not only must the objectives be considered in selecting content but also the â€Å"validity and significance† of the content chosen. d) Organization of content. With the selection of content goes the task of deciding at what levels and in what sequences the subject matter will be placed. Maturity of learners, their readiness to confront the subject matter, and their levels of academic achievement are factors to be considered in the appropriate placement of content. e) Selection of learning experiences. The methodologies or strategies by which the learners are involved with the content must be chosen by the curriculum planners. Pupils internalize the content through the learning activities selected by the planner-teacher. f) Organization of learning activities. The teacher decides how to package the learning activities and in what combinations and sequences they will be utilized. At this stage, the teacher adapts the strategies to the particular students for whom he or she has responsibility. g) Determination of what to evaluate and of the ways and means of doing it. The planner must decide whether objectives have been accomplished. The instructor selects from a variety of techniques and appropriate means for assessing achievement of students and for determining whether the objectives of the curriculum have been met. h) Checking for balance and sequence. Taba counseled curriculum workers to look for consistency among the various parts of the teaching-learning units for proper flow of the learning experiences, and for balance in the types of learning and forms of expression. 2. Testing experimental units. Since the goal of this process is to create a curriculum encompassing one or more grade levels or subject areas and since teachers have written their pilot units with their own classrooms in mind, the units must now be tested â€Å"to establish their validity and teach-ability and to set their upper and lower limits of required abilities. . Revising and consolidating. The units are modified to conform to variations in student needs and abilities, available resources, and different styles of teaching so that the curriculum may suit all types of classrooms. Taba would charge supervisors, the coordinators of curricula, and the curriculum specialists with the task of â€Å"stating the principles and theoretical considerations on which the structure of the units and the selection of content and learning activities are based and suggesting the limits within which modifications in the classroom can take place. Taba recommended that such considerations and suggestions might be assembled in a handbook explaining the use of the units. 4. Developing a framework. After a number of units have been constructed, the curriculum planners must examine them as to adequacy of scope and appropriateness of sequence. The curriculum specialist would assume the responsibility of drafting a rationale for the curriculum which has been developed through this process. 5. Installing and disseminating new units. So that the teachers may effectively put the teaching-learning units into operation in their classrooms, Taba called on administrators to arrange appropriate in-service training. Taba’s inductive model may not appeal to curriculum developers who prefer to consider the more global aspects of the curriculum before proceeding to specifics. Some planners might wish to see a more comprehensive model that includes steps both in diagnosing the needs of society and culture and in deriving needs from subject matter, philosophy, and learning theory. Taba elaborates on these points in her final text. 6. Palma’s Linear Model of Curriculum Development Using Tyler’s Rationale and Taba’s paradigm, Palma (1992) formulated the following linear model including four subsystems (Figure 2). Figure 2. A Linear Model of Curriculum The curriculum model above suggests end-means integration. This model clearly shows that curriculum and instruction are not separate independent components but contiguous parts of a continuum or system. They are two-sides of the same coin, you cannot have one without the other. The curriculum component represents the thought plan aspect of curriculum development which includes the selection and organization phases while the instruction component is the means-action part consisting of the implementation and evaluation phases. Subsystem I indicates the direction and intention of the educational effort. This includes the School Vision or the set of unifying beliefs and values according to which the school personnel behave and perform their roles individually and collectively. This is eventually translated into the Mission Statement and further delineated in the school-wide and level goals and finally translated into learning objectives contained in the units of instruction and individual lessons. Subsystem 2 is the learning content. The learning goals are fleshed out in a continuum or scope and sequence of learning content in terms of knowledge and understanding, skills and competencies, attitudes and values which become the basis of subject matter for instruction and mastery. As one student puts it matter-of-factly, this is the â€Å"stuff that kids must learn in school. The school expects every student to master these basic requirements of school learning content which define the standards against which every prospective graduate will be measured. Subsystem 3 is made up of learning experiences, activities and resources which constitute the where-withal for attaining the learning objectives. Working on the principle that â€Å"he who wants the end, wan ts the means,† the school employs the most relevant and effective strategies and resources that will ensure mastery of learning content. All these are indicated in a plan of instruction, both on the unit and the lesson level, to be carried out in the classroom. Subsystem 4 has to do with measurement and evaluation of learning outcomes. The evaluation reveals whether the objectives are being attained or not and at what level. And more importantly, if objectives are not being met according to acceptable levels or standards, why these are not being met and what should be done about it. This is indicated by the feedback loop. Curriculum Development for Higher Education in the Philippine Setting The Rogelio V. Cuyno observed that life is by itself a curriculum. The small day-to-day experiences add up to a total experience which make us what we are. We learn from them. We become somebody because of these experiences. A curriculum is like life. The only difference is that an educational is purposive, designed by specialist and educators. The day-to-day events and activities in our lives are largely shaped by random forces which are beyond our control. Learning comes out of the necessity to survive and to adapt to the demands and contingencies of the external environment. Such is not the case in a university environment. The experiences that students are made up to undergo are not random but carefully structured and planned towards meeting a goal, guided by theories and by tested principles. A faculty curriculum design will reveal itself in performance of graduates in the job market or world of work and in adult social life. Designing a curriculum for higher education of the tertiary level in the educational hierarchy is hereby presented. This unit is intended for university teachers, administrators and those in the non-formal system of education who is or will be reviewing and revising a specific course within a college curriculum or preparing a new curriculum. The UP Mindanao Campus Experience The aim of curriculum developers is to produce graduates who will behave as the curriculum aimed them for, who will be relevant to the world of work, who will be efficient and who will have flexibility and plasticity to withstand a shifting job market and environment realities. Specifically, this unit aims to make the participants: 1. Identify and discuss concepts in curriculum planning; 2. Cite and explain elements in a curriculum; 3. Formulate educational objectives following norms and practices in education; 4. Identify and discuss the different factors to consider in curriculum planning; and; 5. Outline and discuss the procedures in curriculum development. Content A. Concepts 1. Definition of curriculum planning A curriculum is a series of planned experiences that a learner is made to undergo in a given period to achieve a given goal. It involves direct teaching where the teacher gives structured technical inputs on a face to face basis or through assigned tasks. There are also educational experiences which are meant not to impart a professional stock of knowledge and skills of a craft but to mold the character, internalize universal moral values, hone social and organizational skills, or appreciate the finer things in life. This is often called extra-curriculum activities or those activities outside the formal courses. Even this is programmed and deliberate rather than accidental or a product of afterthought. Planning the curriculum involves determining the aim of education; identifying the students to whom the system will be geared; deciding what to teach and how these are sequenced; providing organizational and logistical support so that the teaching process can be managed efficiently; and, insuring that the curricular and extra-curricular component are interrelated. 2. Tripodal source of influence The structured of a curriculum is formed in response to three sources of influences: the learner’s systems; the teacher and knowledge system; and society or the market for the products of the curriculum (Figure 3). For the learner system, we need to know the entry level of the learners in terms of their preparation in the prior educational level. A curriculum may be too difficult resulting in failures if the curriculum of the previous lower school system where students came from is deficient. On the other hand, the higher education curriculum might be boring because the courses are too easy and familiar to students who have covered the subjects sufficiently in the secondary level. Learner System Teacher- The Market Knowledge and Society System Figure 1. Tripodal Influence in Curricular Design The teacher-knowledge system refers to the stock of knowledge, tools and skills in the discipline that an incoming professional is expected to posses. Due to advances in research and practice of the profession and the changes in educational objective, the present curriculum would be more updated than the previous one. Finally, due to changing technology being used at the world of work and the new demands of employers, the market require that the curriculum be realigned to these new realities. For example, nowadays, students need to be computer literate because employers are requiring the skills. New medical curricula for community practice have now to be more of a general practitioner type than before. Those studying agriculture today have learn about environmental sustainability, farming systems, food systems, agribusiness and political economy, because society expects them to be enlightened on these issues. 3. Economy and Self-Sufficiency The curriculum must be designed to enable the learner to assimilate the subject sufficiently and as economically as possible. Scheffler (1958) wrote about three types of economy: †¢ teaching effort and resources †¢ learners effort and resources; and economy of subject matter The last type needs further explanation. Economy of subject matter refers to maximum generalizability or transfer value. To be economical in this sense is to learn subjects to facilitate other learning. For example, math and physics should facilitate learning chemistry and genetics. Not only that, content should â€Å"enable the learner to take responsible personal and moral decisions†. 4. Integration of Subjects Whitehead (Frankena, 1965) enunciated two commandments in curriculum planning â€Å"Do not teach too many subjects† and â€Å"What you teach, teach thoroughly†. Teaching many subjects which are disconnected is fatal to further learning. It could lead to passive reception of ideas and confuse the learners. Thorough teaching could lead students to discern relationships and application and the connection of the present to the past and the future. The thorough learning of the scientific method, for example, could lead to discovery of an inner logic which applies to problem-solving and decision making in the field of management. 5. Principle of Option Most young people go to college without really knowing what they would want to become later in life. Hence, besides the General Education subjects outside the major field. Such subject may comprise what is known as the minor or cognate or electives and which we shall term as option subjects. The other function of option subjects is that the students can pursue fields which are personally interesting and fulfilling and in the process develop certain natural talents and inclinations. The implication of all these in curriculum development is that it is better to emphasize teaching of tools, collecting, organizing and processing information rather than memorizing of facts and defining things. 6. Aim of Education A curriculum is a means to achieve an educational goal. In the normative theory of education, the content, activities and process of instruction must serve the end goal. This will lead to us to the study of philosophy of education. To Dewey (Frankena, 1995), the aim of education is to promote growth. According to him, growth is dependent on increased control by the self. It refers to â€Å"having an end† instead of â€Å"being the end†. Possession of intellectual ability and the knowledge of how to learn empower an individual to pursue personal growth. Learning here is viewed as a lifelong process. Dewey defines education as a continuous â€Å"reconstruction or reorganization of experience which adds to the deepening of meaning of experience, and which increases ability to direct the course of subsequent experience†. Whitehead (Frankena, 1965) viewed the aim of education as â€Å"producing men and women who posses both culture (including philosophy and art) and expert knowledge in some special direction†. Whitehead believed that the learner should be helped and made to experience the joy of discovery for that is what life is all about. Whitehead was an exponent of problem focused learning. He believed that the mind is an instrument that need to be sharpened and that it is never passive but active in perpetuity, receptive and responsive to stimuli. The mind can not be told â€Å"learn this now, you will need it later†. The implication in curriculum design is that theory and practice and the mental and physical components should be integrated. Because education is â€Å"life in all its manifestations†, Whitehead advocate wholeness in education which assumes that behind all living things is interconnections. Another educational philosopher worth noting for his thoughts on the goal of education is Maratain (Frankena, 1965). He said that the aim of education is to guide the learner to shape himself as â€Å"a human person-armed with knowledge, strength of judgment, and moral virtues-while at the same time conveying to him the spiritual heritage of the nation and civilization†. B. Elements of a Curriculum A curriculum has a structure which is made up of elements. For the structure to take shape the elements must have harmony and internal consistency. Otherwise, it will appear disjointed and discordant just like when musical notes do not blend. The elements of the curricular structure are: †¢ Objectives; †¢ Content; †¢ Method of procedure; Requirement; and †¢ Extra curricular activities. 1. Objective In contrast to educational aim or goal, the objective element of the curriculum is more operational and observable. The objective can be found in the analysis of the courses and in the various teaching units. At the end of the teaching procedure, the teacher or any external evaluator can refer back to the objective to determine if the procedure was effective. Objective is the learning destination toward which the teacher tries to bring the learner to: Educators use ABCD as guide on how to formulate a learning objective stated from the side of the learner: A = Stands for audience or the students. There is a need to direct or target the objective towards a known participant, e. g. , â€Å"For all the first year students to . . . . . . . † B = Stands for Behavior or an overt/visible activity the students should be doing if learning indeed has taken place. If stated in an overt behavioral terms, it is easy to measure if change had taken place. E. g. , â€Å"For first year students to enter a statement in the computer . . . . . â€Å" C = For condition or the assumption and parameters that have to be provided by the teacher so that the students will feel the experience. E. g. , given a working PC, all first year students should be able to enter a statement in it. D = For degree of visible achievement. This is commonly referred to as quantifiable indicator of learning. E. g. , Given a working PC, all first year students must be able to enter a statement in the computer allowing 5% error. 2. Content Content in a curriculum is the body of knowledge, tools, skills, (psychomotor, manual and mental) and attitude that the teacher intends to pass on to the students or wants the students to develop. Put concisely, content is what is intended to be learned. A good curriculum is one which allows students to explore and learned content beyond what is prescribed. As discussed earlier in the section on philosophy of education, a course not only prepares a student for a profession or job but to become complete human being and citizen of the country. The choice of content should follow the aim of the curriculum. Universities perform research to expand the knowledge-base of the profession or widen the general state of the art, science and technology that will catalyze and become the cutting edge of the economy. Such outputs of research should also be channeled to and enrich content thus making the curriculum more dynamic and up-to-date. 3. Method and Activities Method is how the content element should be taught or how the experience should structure so that the student will acquire and discover the content. It is the procedure of instruction that can take place not only in school but also outside-in the industry, society, community and at home. Many educational philosophers, among them, Dewey and Whitehead, believed that application of theory and principle should not be delayed to a much later time but should be experienced here and now. They also believed that activities must be relevant to the real world. The teaching procedure in a curriculum should attempt to bridge academe with industry and society, theory with practice. Thus there should be a reinforcement, supplementation and complementation among the different methods of instruction such as; lecture, discussion, apprenticeship, library work, independent study, individual and group work. 4. Integrative Requirements The final requirements of a curriculum are usually in the form of thesis, special project, internship, practicum, rural service and volunteer work. The purposes of such requirement are: to provide opportunity for integration, for deepening of knowledge and application, exposure to the real world or to facilitate one’s induction to a profession. 5. Extra Curricular Activities In our previous discussion, we referred to extra-curricular activities as outside the curricular structure. But in terms of the principle of total learning experience in higher education which we favor here, here is important to consider extracurricular work as part of curriculum. Being a variable, extra curricular activities influence attainment of the educational aim as they tend to reinforce and strengthen teaching of content and values. C. Factors in Curriculum Design Earlier we cited and discussed the elements of a curriculum. This time there is a need to identify the factors that influence how the elements will be structured. 1. Industry Young people to challenge because they eventually want earn and make a living-either working for an employer or for themselves. In any case, after college, they’ll have to belong to an industry. Industry is the market for college graduates. Naturally, if the graduates have to fit the requirement of industry, they have to be prepared for it through the courses in the curriculum that they enroll in. If the needs of industry are for more practical skills, the curriculum will pay more attention to practical skills; the curriculum will pay more attention to practical skills. It is a simple case of demand and supply. 2. Economy Industry and economy are closely linked. The economy has a direct way of attracting certain skills and it creates expectations, hopes and aspirations. If the economy is on the rise due to contribution of a certain sector, people would move towards that sector. Economy provides ambience to a profession. Hence the curriculum developers could not and should not ignore it. As an example, there is a proliferation of computer schools, computer-related courses and the field of information science because of the large contribution of this field of information science of the large contribution of this field to the country’s economy. 3. Competition Competition has a way of extracting the best from the system. If curriculum â€Å"A† is drawing students’ attention at the expense of curriculum â€Å"B†, curriculum B has no choice but to shape up. Otherwise that curriculum will have nothing but empty chairs and the school will go under. Schools go into self-improvement or externally induced-improvement through curricular reviews. Administrators than use the recommendation of the review group as leverage to change or reform the curriculum. 4. Government Policy In many countries, the Philippines included, some courses are required to be part of the curriculum through legislation or force of law. Recently the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) which oversees higher education in the country received severe criticism from leaders in culture a history including newspaper columnists. It was because of perceived non-implementation or lack of heart to implement the teaching of â€Å"Rizal and His Works† in the tertiary level of education. 5. Previous Level and Students Capability The quality and the structure of the secondary level curriculum have an impact on the tertiary level curriculum. If most of the in-coming freshman is deficient in certain subjects like Mathematics or English or Science, the college curriculum has to be adjusted to correct the deficiency. This can be done through remedial courses or adding more subjects. Students with advanced proficiency in Mathematics, science or English, on the other hand, are accelerated to higher courses. 6. Culture Education in a generic sense refers to the total social process by which the individual acquire beliefs, acceptable behavior, standards and values, and a way of living in society. Only a small portion of how one is educated actually is due to the school system. Schools being one of the teaching institutions in society have an obligation to help preserve, promote and enhance the culture of a particular society which constitutes the bedrock of national identity and the moral foundation of the people. As pointed out earlier, a curriculum must have a common universal content that has to be taught as part of the socialization process and a means for social control. This must embrace the most crucial and significant ideas and major themes in the national consciousness. A curriculum exists within a culture. The two, curriculum and culture, therefore are interwoven. As culture undergoes transformation in time, so must the curriculum. In this way, a curriculum exists in the service of the nation and of society. D. Professional, General and Post-Graduate Education Many years back, educators and philosophers debated over whether college education should be more for professional development or for liberal education. The two aims of education were thought of as being on opposite poles. That is, if the curriculum is slanted to general education, there is ess professional training and vice versa. If there is a bias for professional education, something is taken away from general education. At the University of the Philippines this was resolved with the institution of General Education courses. General Education (GE) makes the individual a whole person, able to cope with multi-dimensional aspects of life-relationship with the natural environment, social life , economic well-being, cultural roots and identity, developments and advances in science and technology, relationships with political-legal institutions and contributing to political maturity and responsiveness. Moreover, GE trains the person to be a life-long learner and equips the person with analytical and explanatory tools as well as methods of observing, organizing of observations and then making decision and judgments. In other words, the student learns to identify and solve problems and scientific way. In the University of the Philippines Mindanao, where the author is the Dean, we review our curricula as somewhere in the middle of the continuum of general and professional education. Our aims are to prepare a person to be a professional with continuing proficiency in his/her craft, and able to induce productivity and growth of the enterprise. At the same time, the person should be aware and must internalize social and political responsibility, conservation and sustainability of natural endowment and feel his cultural heritage. He must not neglected to appreciate the finer things in life-the â€Å"good and the beautiful† and must contribute to make his surroundings a decent place to live in. In the teaching of the craft or the tools, knowledge and skills in the profession, we believe that the teacher must not only teach content but must inculcate a liberal attitude to his craft. That is, being open minded, creative, a problem-solver and change agent. E. Procedures in Curriculum Development As pointed out earlier, curriculum, culture, science and technology, industry and the economy and legal-political reality are interwoven. The curriculum, therefore, has to be dynamic. There must be a formal mechanism for internal and external reviews. Internally, the university/college must be sensitive to any discontinuity in society. Globally it must be sensitive to new opportunities in the environment. All these changes have to be watched, anticipated and even enhanced. A senior official of the university must be made responsible for this function. Logically, this task will fall on the Office of Academic Affairs or of Planning and Development Office. A system wide recommendatory committee is usual appointed to do a fact to environmental changes and opportunities. External reviews need more time to prepare. In addition to representatives from faculty, non-academic staff and students, representatives from industry, government, NGO, and the professions as well as parents compose this committee. The recommendation is usually validated in a forum with invited reactors. Curriculum Planning What is curriculum planning? Objectives #4, under section 4, â€Å"declaration of objectives† of the Education Act of 1982 that the educational system aims to respond effectively to changing need and conditions of the nation through a system of education planning and evolution†. Bernard M. Reyes (1974) explains the nature and scope of educational planning as follows: Education planning is an instrument for providing the needed coordination and direction of the different components of an education system and ensures that widely accepted long-term goals, such as universal primary education, are approached more objectively. It provides realistic appraisal of the country’s resources (material human and institutional) which is and important factor in the successful implementation of the plan. Though education planning, a country indicates its willingness to effect an orderly change or reforming its education system by bringing into focus the shortcoming or needs that hitherto had been ignored or unknown and so that appropriate action can be affected coupled with the proper allocation of energies and resource to their sector. Educational planning takes into account the past and present realities of the country’s education and training programs. It is commonly preceded by survey of the educational situation and needs. Well-organized statistics services are necessary to provide essential and reliable data. To ensure the full acceptance and implementation of the plan, person who is to implant the plan, such as school administrators, supervisors, teachers, other personnel, should participate in the formulation of the plan (Reyes, 1974). Reyes attributes to Boquiren (1965) certain accepted principles on which educational planning is based, among which are first, that planning is a high-level staff function professional guidance of the authorities in the determination of educational goals and the evolving of the educational goals and evolving of educational policies and their execution; (2) that education planning involves all levels of education of both public and private sector and the related economic and financial agencies of the nation; (3) education planning must be a comprehensive and continuous process and must be periodically evaluated (Reyes, see Manuel, Guerrero, and Sutaria, 1974). According to Reyes, the essential elements of educational planning are: 1. Quantitative planning. This covers all questions involved in the expansion of educational facilities based on pedagogical, demographic, geographical, economic, and social factors. Quantitative planning makes references to school population (enrollment, dr op out, and promotion) the recruitment of teachers and supervisors, and the provision of classrooms and equipment (furniture, laboratories, etc. ). 2. Qualitative planning. This covers aims, content, and methods of ducation, curricular planning (the levels and branches), teacher training, educational guidance, research, and textbooks and other teaching aids. 3. Administrative planning. This is concerned with the needs and assets, costs, sources or finance or distribution or expenditures (recurrent expenditures and capital investment), grants, and loans. In education planning, two approaches are: involved the macro approach and the minor approach. The macro approach refers to the over-all planning which is primarily concerned with the aggregates in the education system; e. g. , new enrollment at the various level, numbers of schools to be constructed, etc. the macro approach, on the other hand, lays emphasis on the individual component which go to make up the educational system. The essential steps in the planning process are: 1) statement of objectives; 2) diagnosis of the present situation; 3) formulation of the plan; 4) implementation; and 5) evaluation. Varied terms used in the literature There are varied terms used in the literature in connection with the curriculum planning process. Among such terms are curriculum developing, curriculum improvement, curriculum study, curriculum making, and of course curriculum planning. As far as the term curriculum development is concerned many authors have used, and continue to use, this term. Bernardino and Fresnoza (1963), for example, state that curriculum development involves three kinds of activities: 1) planning the experiences to be utilized, 2) reorganizing them in program, and 3) evaluating the curriculum thus developed. In doing all of these, they explain further, attention is given to the ultimate purposes of education, to the more immediate objectives, to the various aspects of child and to the other factors associated with teaching (Bernardino and Fresnoza, 1963). To Agoncillo (1977), curriculum development should be regarded as â€Å"a practical inquiry† the outcome of which is to specify the means for carrying out and educational intent or purpose. Such an inquiry should focus attention on purposes, goals, and objectives on a continuum from levels of generality to specify: on materials, media and resources to be employed on plans of action at various levels and various educational situations; and finally, on the evaluative measures for various specific purposes (Agoncillo, 1977). By the very nature of the curriculum, its development is a decision-making process for many people. It affects a number of people, the pupil or learner, who is the focal point of the entire endeavor, the teacher, who is the primary implementer, the parents who after all will foot the educational bill; the administrator/supervisor, who is responsible for the leadership; and society in general, which will be the ultimate recipient of the educational output (Socrates, 1977). According to Socrates, there are many principles underlying curriculum development, but one basic principle stands out namely that the curriculum should be planned. In his own words: â€Å"there is simply no substitute to planning-systematic planning† (p. 3). Consequently, Socrates adds, if systematic planning undertaken, there are other principles which answer four basic questions: 1) who plans the curriculum? (principle of cooperation); 2) When is the curriculum planned? (principle of continuity); 3) What are planned? (principle of comprehensiveness); and 4) How is the curriculum planned? (the principle o f systematic approach). In addition Socrates states that curriculum development has certain stages or phases (a) identifying objectives; (b) structuring learning experience; (c) deciding on content; (d) organization; and (e) evaluation. Stratemeyer et al. (1957) state that there are at least three facets to curriculum improvement: first, continuous appraisal of the existing program in terms of emerging needs; second, changes where evaluation indicates they are required; and third, the operation of and effective ongoing educational program while making changes. Conceived in this manner, curriculum improvement is a ceaseless process, flourishing in a dynamic, flexible educational environment in which security and stability exist without complacency or crystallization. To these writers, curriculum improvement is a process which suggests a continuous study of programs. Aquino presents the following as part of the considerations in curriculum planning and organization: INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT Besides, in developing a curriculum consideration must be given to the factors that should determine the nature of the education to be provided to the children and youth in the schools. Next the educator faces the responsibility of actually developing a curriculum. What kind of experience shall be planned for pupils? How these units for experiences shall is organized? What kind of curriculum should the school provide so that pupils may attain the objectives of education it has defined? These decisions become the curriculum plan. Such plan defines the nature of the educational experiences to be provided pupils, the methods of selecting and organizing the elements of the curriculum into coherence and unified program of education, and the place in the education of the child and the sequential arrangement in which the elements of the curriculum are to be developed. A plan for the curriculum is essential efficiently to the attainment of the outcomes sought for the pupils. The curriculum of the school is encompassed within the following aspects of educational program: 1. The class programs of the school, which utilize bodies of contend selected and organized on some predetermined structure. 2. Extra classroom activities. 3. Services provide by the school, such as guidance, health, library, food, and transportation services, and special services fro exceptional children. 4. The social life of the school and the interpersonal relationships among pupils and teachers. 5. Organizational policies and procedures for providing the instructional program. Organization of learning content Curriculum design refers to how the curriculum content is organized and laid for purposes of instruction; this is intended to accomplish orderly and meaningful coverage of content so as to bring about the cumulative effect of education in terms of residual or habitual leaning. This also ensures economy through optimum use of time and effort, efficiency through and orderly and systematic progression of learning and affectivity in obtaining the desired learning outcomes. In organizing curriculum content we are usually guided by the following complementary basic principles: 1. Balance. This refers to the equitable and fair distribution of content among the different level of instruction to ensure that no level is unduly overburdened or under burdened. 2. Articulation. This refers to provisions for establishing the vertical from level to level. This way we can avoid the glaring â€Å"gaps† and wasteful â€Å"overlaps† in subject matter and ensure and unbroken chain of learning. Proper articulation promotes team work among the instructional staff and will prevent the perennial â€Å"blaming syndrome† so prevalent in schools where this principle is not observed. 3. Sequence. This term is used to describe the sequential and graded arrangement of subject matter. It refers to a deepening and broadening of content as it is taking up on the higher levels. The term Spiraling has been used to denote this idea of sequence. For instance, a senior high school class will take up paragraph writing but at a more sophisticated and advanced level than a first year class. 4. Integration. This denotes the horizontal link or content in related subjects’ areas. There is integration where an individual is able to connect what he is learning in a subject area to a related content in another subject area. Thus concepts and skill learned in Math (e. g. geometric in science). The quality of schooling improves as learners are able to integrate their learning instead of acquiring isolated fragments of information. Ruing isolated fragments of information. Integration helps a person to get a unified view of reality and to use it to improve his total behavior pattern and outlook in life. 5. Continuity. This refers to a constant and consistent repetition, review and reinforcement of major learning elements to bring about mastery or â€Å"executive control† of subject matter. Learning is not a one-shot activity and requires continuing application for the new knowledge, skill or attitude or value to endure habitual use in daily living. Conclusion: Thus, it is useful for leaders to consider the need of curriculum development incorporated with, planning, articulating and developing, implementing as pointed above. Questions to Answer 1. Having taken a course in curriculum- instruction, you are now task to enrich the existing curriculum/program of the school/agency where you are employed, how do you go about it? Enumerate the steps and discuss on how you are going to work on this task. 2. Due to changes taking place in the society in what considerations would you provide in the curriculum to meet the needs of the day and why? 3. Explain why in organizing the curriculum content, we should be guided with the basic principles in organizing curriculum content and if not considered what is likely going to happen? ———————– PURPOSE IDEAL GRAUATE MEANS ASSESSMENT Instruction Components Curriculum Component Subsystem 4 Subsystem 3 Subsystem 2 Subsystem 1 Learning Experiences Evaluation Of Learning Outcomes Learning Objectives Learning Content Feedback loop Learning Activity With a colleague, discuss the issue of â€Å"how far should the curriculum designer accommodate the demands of the market†. Learning Activity Figure out another example of â€Å"economy of subject matter† as explained above. Learning Activity Do you agree or disagree with the following statement? â€Å"It’s better to load students with more sub